In this project we move on from the deterministic theory of base and superstructure espoused by Marx to one that, in challenging his theory, stresses the interrelationships between the two, and how an individual relates to his or her actual existence.
We are asked to read the seminal essay Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (notes towards an investigation) by Althuser (1972) in the course reader and consider three questions set out below.
It has to be said that this article is not easy reading so I started by researching the definition of structuralism:-
"a theoretical paradigm ... positing that elements of human culture must be understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure. It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism
Structuralism originated from the work of de Saussure in linguistics and was extended by Levi Strauss in anthropology; in this sense it is a way of looking at the world very different from that of Marx's economic determinism, although both approaches seek to show the individual within structures that influence his behaviour and outlook.
How does Althusser's structuralism show here?
Althusser defines ideology as "the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence". He thus adds a layer to the simple Marxist deterministic view of ideology acting on the subject. He further adds the concept of 'interpellation' (or hailing) whereby individuals recognise themselves through ideology (rather than by it) thus wittingly or unwittingly being a complicit part of their own domination. He uses the example of police officer shouting "Hey, you there!" Once the hailed individual turns round thus acknowledging that it was he who was being hailed he becomes a subject "because he recognises that the hail was 'really' addressed to him and that it was really him who was hailed" (Althusser). There is a double subjecthood: he is recognised as a subject by the law and is also subjugated by the law.
We are asked to read the seminal essay Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (notes towards an investigation) by Althuser (1972) in the course reader and consider three questions set out below.
It has to be said that this article is not easy reading so I started by researching the definition of structuralism:-
"a theoretical paradigm ... positing that elements of human culture must be understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure. It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism
Structuralism originated from the work of de Saussure in linguistics and was extended by Levi Strauss in anthropology; in this sense it is a way of looking at the world very different from that of Marx's economic determinism, although both approaches seek to show the individual within structures that influence his behaviour and outlook.
How does Althusser's structuralism show here?
Althusser defines ideology as "the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence". He thus adds a layer to the simple Marxist deterministic view of ideology acting on the subject. He further adds the concept of 'interpellation' (or hailing) whereby individuals recognise themselves through ideology (rather than by it) thus wittingly or unwittingly being a complicit part of their own domination. He uses the example of police officer shouting "Hey, you there!" Once the hailed individual turns round thus acknowledging that it was he who was being hailed he becomes a subject "because he recognises that the hail was 'really' addressed to him and that it was really him who was hailed" (Althusser). There is a double subjecthood: he is recognised as a subject by the law and is also subjugated by the law.
The process is simultaneous: "the existence of of ideology and the hailing or interpellation of individuals as subjects are one and the same thing." Althusser ends by noting how subjects are interpellated by Ideological State Apparatuses, and it is no great leap of faith to see how these ideas may be adopted by visual culture (examples below). Althusser believes that
What does Althusser mean by ideology?
This question cannot be isolated from the first as Althusser's structuralism is shown in part by his definition of ideology as explained above.
Althusser takes issue with the idea of ideologies as 'world outlooks'. He believes that while we admit that ideologies are are "largely imaginery.....they do make allusion to reality, and that they only need be 'interpreted' to discover the reality of the world behind their imaginery representation of that world." Reflected in that imaginery representation is the "conditions of existence of men. i.e. their real world."
Althusser theorises that it is not the real conditions of existence that is represented in ideology, but people's relation to those conditions that defines the "imaginery distortion of the ideological representation of the real world." He proposes that ideology has a material existence, it is not just about ideas but also the actions and behaviour of bodies; the actions are governed by the rituals of an ideological apparatus (such as attending Mass, kneeling, praying etc in respect of the ideological apparatus of the Church). These apparatuses transform us from individuals into subjects.
Is there, in your view, an area of visual culture where this idea may seem to act in an overt way?
Althusser's theory has significant impact on our view of visual culture. If we accept that a) ideology is about actions and behaviours; b) that individuals recognize themselves through ideology rather than ideology acting upon an individual, then it is clear that there is a circularity relationship, a sort of constant feedback.
I identify the popular press as an example of Althusser's ideological apparatus. Let's take the immigration debate presently near the top of the news agenda as an example.
Here is a recent Daily Express headline:
THE crusading Daily Express has won praise from across the political divide for highlighting the looming dangers of Britain's out-of-control immigration crisis. By: Giles Sheldrick - EXCLUSIVE
Published: Sun, January 12, 2014
The Daily Express has won praise for highlighting Britain's immigration crisis. We have been the only national newspaper and website to campaign to halt a new surge of European immigration.
From the visual culture point of view, this is interesting not only because of the words but also the image - evidently an individual living in rough conditions that few would wish and acting as an undesired lifestyle, something (the editor presumes) we would rather not see. The individual may not even be an immigrant for all we know, but it and the associated article aim to interpellate the readership, literally hailing the readers to turn and identify themselves with the notion that we are shortly to be overrun with immigrants from Romania and Bulgaria. The reader, in Althusser speak, is an 'always-already subject.'
Conclusion
I found this to be the most complicated project so far. Althusser's article is convoluted and repetitive and I am not sure of its relevance to visual culture per se. Howells and Negreiros spend several chapters on what they see as the main contributing theories to visual culture, yet Althusser warrants only a paragraph (Howells and Negreiros, 2012, p106). Perhaps the theory is most relevant to visual media rather than visual culture. But then I might be missing something...
References
Daily Express http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/453474/Nigel-Farage-praises-the-Daily-Express-for-highlighting-Britain-s-immigration-crisis?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+daily-express-uk-news+%28Daily+Express+%3A%3A+UK+Feed%29
Howells and Negreiros (2012) Visual Culture. Revised 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press
What does Althusser mean by ideology?
This question cannot be isolated from the first as Althusser's structuralism is shown in part by his definition of ideology as explained above.
Althusser takes issue with the idea of ideologies as 'world outlooks'. He believes that while we admit that ideologies are are "largely imaginery.....they do make allusion to reality, and that they only need be 'interpreted' to discover the reality of the world behind their imaginery representation of that world." Reflected in that imaginery representation is the "conditions of existence of men. i.e. their real world."
Althusser theorises that it is not the real conditions of existence that is represented in ideology, but people's relation to those conditions that defines the "imaginery distortion of the ideological representation of the real world." He proposes that ideology has a material existence, it is not just about ideas but also the actions and behaviour of bodies; the actions are governed by the rituals of an ideological apparatus (such as attending Mass, kneeling, praying etc in respect of the ideological apparatus of the Church). These apparatuses transform us from individuals into subjects.
Is there, in your view, an area of visual culture where this idea may seem to act in an overt way?
Althusser's theory has significant impact on our view of visual culture. If we accept that a) ideology is about actions and behaviours; b) that individuals recognize themselves through ideology rather than ideology acting upon an individual, then it is clear that there is a circularity relationship, a sort of constant feedback.
I identify the popular press as an example of Althusser's ideological apparatus. Let's take the immigration debate presently near the top of the news agenda as an example.
Here is a recent Daily Express headline:
THE crusading Daily Express has won praise from across the political divide for highlighting the looming dangers of Britain's out-of-control immigration crisis. By: Giles Sheldrick - EXCLUSIVE
Published: Sun, January 12, 2014
The Daily Express has won praise for highlighting Britain's immigration crisis. We have been the only national newspaper and website to campaign to halt a new surge of European immigration.
From the visual culture point of view, this is interesting not only because of the words but also the image - evidently an individual living in rough conditions that few would wish and acting as an undesired lifestyle, something (the editor presumes) we would rather not see. The individual may not even be an immigrant for all we know, but it and the associated article aim to interpellate the readership, literally hailing the readers to turn and identify themselves with the notion that we are shortly to be overrun with immigrants from Romania and Bulgaria. The reader, in Althusser speak, is an 'always-already subject.'
Conclusion
I found this to be the most complicated project so far. Althusser's article is convoluted and repetitive and I am not sure of its relevance to visual culture per se. Howells and Negreiros spend several chapters on what they see as the main contributing theories to visual culture, yet Althusser warrants only a paragraph (Howells and Negreiros, 2012, p106). Perhaps the theory is most relevant to visual media rather than visual culture. But then I might be missing something...
References
Daily Express http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/453474/Nigel-Farage-praises-the-Daily-Express-for-highlighting-Britain-s-immigration-crisis?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+daily-express-uk-news+%28Daily+Express+%3A%3A+UK+Feed%29
Howells and Negreiros (2012) Visual Culture. Revised 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press
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